The Christian church, while persecuted in its early centuries, saw rapid growth in the fourth century upon the conversion of Roman emperor Constantine. As the church gained prominence in Western culture, it worked through formal definitions of its essential doctrines based on the Bible, but also began to develop its own traditions.
Athanasius and Augustine (of Hippo) remain two of the best communicators of Christian theology, and most of the errors of the church were only in their infancy in their day. Chrysostom is also magnificent, both for his preaching skills and for his high regard for the Bible.
Arius (250-336) - popular preacher in Alexandria who taught that Jesus was a created being inferior to God. His teaching became known as Arianism, which was denounced at the Council of Nicea (325) but continued to hold sway in the Eastern Church for many years.
Athanasius (297-373) - bishop of Alexandria remembered as the "father of orthodoxy" for defending the essential Christian doctrines of the Trinity and Christ's Incarnation. He was a fiery, disciplined preacher who emphasized the presence of God in history. He also opposed the speculations of Origen, considering the Bible sufficient for theology. The Athanasian Creed is named after him. Titles: Against the Gentiles; Defense Against the Arians; On the Incarnation of the Word.
Augustine of Canterbury (597-604) - monk and friend of Pope Gregory the Great. Gregory sent him to England to re-introduce Christianity (which had waned after the fall of Rome). He converted King Aethelbert and became the first archbishop of Canterbury. Not to be confused with theologian Augustine of Hippo.
Augustine of Hippo (354-430) - the most influential post-biblical theologian in church history. His ideas laid the foundation for both Catholic and Protestant theology. Augustine assisted in the official formation of the biblical canon, and opposed the heresies of his time. Augustine stressed the sovereignty of God's will in salvation, and made a distinction between civil and religious authority. His most commonly read works are Confessions and The City of God. Not to be confused with Augustine of Canterbury.
Basil of Caesarea (329-379) - also known as Basil the Great, brother of Gregory of Nyssa. He was brilliant and highly educated, but unlike Gregory of Nazianzus, a fellow defender of the Trinity, Basil was fiery, strong-willed, and outspoken. Frequently surrounded by heated conflicts, Basil refused to back down from the doctrine of the deity of Christ, even in the face of torture, exile, or death. Titles: Against Eunomius; The Longer Monastic Rules; Morals; On Faith; On the Hexaemeron; On the Holy Spirit; On the Judgment of God; The Shorter Monastic Rules.
Bede (672-735) - English historian, theologian, and scientist, whose Ecclesiastical History of the English People provides most of what we know about early British history. Bede's work is the first witness to Gregorian chants in England. He also translated most of the Gospels into English and wrote a History of the Abbots, as well as many commentaries and homilies.
John Chrysostom (347-407) - bishop of Constantinople remembered as one of the four Great Doctors of the Church. A dedicated monk and eloquent preacher whose grammatical interpretation of Scripture would later be the model for Luther and Calvin. Chrysostom emphasizes reverence in church services. He was eventually exiled and imprisoned when he defied Roman authorities. Also known as John of Constantinople. Not to be confused with John of Antioch or John of Damascus.
Cyril of Alexandria (375-444) - bishop of Alexandria who opposed Nestorius at the Council of Ephesus. Cyril upheld the biblical teaching that Christ was fully divine from eternity and that in His Incarnation He was one person with two natures. Cyril also opposed Novatianism. He is remembered for his letters to Nestorius and for his commentary on the Gospel of Luke.
Eusebius of Caesarea (263-340) - one of the most prolific early writers. Primarily a theologian and historian, he was a defender of orthodoxy but was somewhat sympathetic to Arius. Eusebius is responsible for most of our knowledge of early post-New Testament Christianity. He supported Emperor Constantine and was largely responsible for the development of amillennialism. His History of the Church is widely available under a number of titles. Another major work is The Life of Constantine, and his Eusebian Canons were one of the first harmonizations of the four Gospels. Not to be confused with a Pope Eusebius who died in 311.
Gregory of Nazianzus (325-389) - poet and bishop of Nazianzus; one of the three Great Cappadocians who opposed Arius. (The other two being the brothers Basil of Caesarea and Gregory of Nyssa.) Not naturally inclined toward controversy, he was compelled to speak out after the death of Basil and took up a strong defense for the doctrine of the Trinity, and particularly on the deityof the Holy Spirit. Titles: Epigrams; Letters; Theological Discourses.
Gregory of Nyssa (330s-380s) - brother of Basil of Caesarea. Gregory was known for his writing on contemplation and Christian mysticism, and for the careful, quiet exposition of scripture and theology in defense of the Trinity. One of the leaders at the Council of Constantinople in 381, he became a close advisor to he emperor before returning to life as a monk. Titles: Catechesis; Explanation of the Titles of the Psalms; On Children; On Fate; On Perfection and What Manner of Man the Christian Should Be; On the Creation of Man; On Virginity; Opuscula; Treatise on the Work of the Six Days.
Gregory the Great (540-604) - Augustinian monk and early Pope. He was a skilled administrator who expanded papal authority and promoted celibacy for the clergy. Gregory also helped establish the doctrine of purgatory and gave his name to the Gregorian chants. While superstitious, he did have a zeal for converting pagans and sent Augustine of Canterbury to re-introduce Christianity in England.
Ignatius of Antioch (c. 50-100) - friend of Polycarp and bishop of Antioch. Ignatius stood strong against Emperor Domitian's persecution of Christians. He was eventually martyred, but before his death he wrote seven letters to Ephesus, Rome, Philadelphia, and other churches. These letters are important sources of early Christian doctrine and life under pagan Rome. Not to be confused with Irenaus, Jesuit founder Ignatius of Loyola, or.the medieval Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople.
Irenaeus (125-202) - bishop of Lyons, disciple of Polycarp, and chief opponent of Marcion and the Gnostic. Irenaeus had a very high view of redeemed human nature and of God's purposes in history. His surviving works are Against Heresies and Demonstration of Apostolic Faith (both of which are sometimes known by other titles).
Jerome (340-420) - prolific theologian and expert on Hebrew and Greek. While he defended traditional church teachings, he tended to be bitter and was not tactful; this led him to disagree with Augustine and others on many issues. He also abhorred sex, and thus argued for the superiority of celibacy to marriage and the perpetual virginity of Mary. Jerome is most remembered for officially translating the Bible into Latin, and his version is called the Latin Vulgate.
John of Damascus (c. 676-754) - Syrian theologian and student of Aristotle's writings. John was a leading proponent of the use of images in worship when such icons became controversial. He is remembered for his encylopedic compilation of the doctrine of the Greek (Eastern) churches, the first attempt at a Summa Theologica. Other titles: Against the Jacobites; The Fountain of Wisdom; In Defense of Icons.
Flavius Josephus (37-c. 100) - Jewish historian whose works are the best known account of first-century Jewish life and the history of Israel under Roman Rule. While not himself a Christian, he is the most valuable extrabilibcal source of information on the world in which Christianity arose. His works, Antiquities and The Jewish War, have been translated and collected in a number of different formats. Also known by his Hebrew name, Joseph ben Mattathias.
Marcion (84-c. 160) - heretic who opposed the Old Testament as the product of an evil creator God distinct from the Father of Christ. Marcion's beliefs were similar to those of the Gnostics, and he believed Jesus' mission was to liberate Christians from the power of the creator God. Marcion was the first to form a New Testament canon: ten of Paul's letters and the Gospel of Luke, all heavily edited to support Marcion's beliefs.
Justin Martyr (c. 100-165) - early Christian apologist who argued publicy against persecution. His main points were the status of the Old and New Testaments as divine revelation, the immorality of pagan society, and rational evidences for the superiority of Christianity. Justin was one of the first to make use of Greek philosophy in defending the faith. He was martyred under Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Titles: Apologies; Dialogue with Trypho the Jew; Treatise against Heresy.Montanus (d. 170s) - leader of a popular end-times movement that began around the 160s. He and two women who left their husbands to follow him claimed to be the sole mouthpieces of the Holy Spirit, above the apostles of the previous century and second in authority only to Christ Himself. Claiming that the end of the world was near and that Montanists alone were spiritual Christians, Montanus forbid marriage and instituted the practices of ecstatic speech and violent shakings in worship. Encouraged by the Church's condemnations, Montanus urged his followers to seek persecution and martyrdom. While Montanus and his prophetesses prophesied that Christ would return immediately upon their deaths, Montanism lasted well into the 500s.
Nestorius (381-451) - patriarch of Constantinople, declared a heretic at the Council of Ephesus. Nestorius declared that Jesus was two persons in one body (as well as two natures), and that Mary was the mother only of the human Jesus and should thus not be called "mother of God."
Origen (182-251) - teacher and prolific writer who sought to wed Christianity and Platonic philosophy. His free use of speculation and allegory led him to universalism and to the idea that human souls exist before the conception of the body. Origen was also one of the leading textual critics of his time. Titles: Against Celsus; On First Principles; and a mammoth edition of the Old Testament called the Hexapla.Pelagius (354-418) - British monk famous for his piety, but declared a heretic for denying original sin. Pelagius believed that humans have the ability to overcome their sin and essentially achieve their own salvation. He was opposed by Augustine, but the church eventually gave mild acceptance to some of Pelagius' views about the human will. Pelagius' works include On Free Will and a Brief Statement of Faith.
Polycarp (69-155) - bishop of Smyrna and disciple of the apostle John. Polycarp was a friend of Ignatius and mentor of Irenaeus. He opposed Marcion and other heretics of his time, and is famous for his defiance in the face of martyrdom. The fact that he had tried to escape the Romans yet stood firm in persecution helped influence Christians not to seek martyrdom actively, but to accept it when it comes. Polycarp's writings include the his Epistles to the Philippians.
Tertullian (155-225?) - the first Christian scholar to write in Latin, sometimes called the Father of Latin Christianity. An aggressive, often sarcastic writer who opposed the use of philosophy in defending Christianity and whose teachings helped shape the Western church. It was Tertullian who coined the word Trinity. In his later years he became enamored with the Montanists and defended them against the mainstream church. Titles: Against Praxeas; Apologeticum; On the Witness of the Soul; Presecription Against the Heretics.Despite numerous attempts at reform, the growing power of the Pope and the rise of scholasticism only served to speed the decline in the church's morality and faithfulness to the gospel. By the late Middle Ages, corruption was rampant and a number of dissidents arose to call for a return to the Bible.
Much of Thomas Aquinas' work remains brilliant despite its failings, and Kempis is a needed corrective for the shallow sentiment that often passes for devotional writing today. Also recommended are the teachings of Hus and Wycliffe.
Peter Abelard (1079-1142) - scholar and philosopher, a proponent of reason over mysticism, and morality of motive over morality of action. Abelard was controversial for his sexually free lifestyle and for his caustic tone when discussing sacred subjects. He was largely orthodox but had an inadequate view of the Trinity. Titles: Christian Theology; Dialogue of a Philosopher with a Jew and a Christian; Ethical Writings; Historia Calamitatum; The Hymsn of Abelard; The Letters of Abelard and Heloise; Sic et Non; Tractatus de Unitate et Trinitate Divina.
Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) - student of philosophy and theology in Florence. He supported the church's doctrine but opposed the expansion policies of the Pope. Dante wrote in both Italian and Latin, and is best known for his Divine Comedy, a fantasized look at hell, purgatory, and heaven. Other titles: The Convivio; The Epistles; The Monarchia; Vita Nuova.
Anselm (1033-1109) - English father of the medieval scholastics. He introduced the ontological argument for God's existence and helped formulate the satisfaction theory of the atonement. Titles: Cur Deus Homo; De Fide Trinitatis; Monologium; Proslogium, which explores why Christ had to become man to achieve our salvation.
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) - greatest of the medieval scholars. Aquinas merged Christian doctrine with Aristotle's philosophy to form a comprehensive worldview that became the standard for the church until the twentieth century. He was a brilliant theologian and apologist, and an adept biblical scholar but was given to flights of allegory in interpretation. Titles: Summa Contra Gentiles; Summa Theologica; and commentaris on Job, Psalms, Isaiah, and the Gosples.
Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) - pious monk known as the "last of the Fathers of the Holy Church." He opposed the errors of Abelard and defended the superiority of the Pope over emperors and kings. Bernard attempted to return the clergy to godly lifestyles and helped resolve important disputes in France. He had a special reverence for Mary and supported the crusades. Titles: Apologia; Grace and Free Will; On the Adoration of Mary.
John Duns Scotus (1266-1308) - scholar who addressed the difficult issues of the day with sharp criticism and relentless logic. Scotus took his defense of God's freedom to the extreme, such that right and wrong was merely arbitrary. More positively, he defended the humanity of Christ and clarified God rather than the sacraments as the source of saving grace. It was his critics' mockery of the pointed hats worn by his followers that led to the term dunce cap. His works include Opus Oxoniense, Quaestiones Quodlibetales, and several commentaries on Aristotle.
Francis of Assisi (1181-1226) - founder of the Franciscan monastic order, and missionary to the Muslim Saracens. The son of a wealthy merchant, Francis gave all his money to the poor and devoted his life to singing and preaching repentance. His legendary love for nature was overshadowed by his awe of the supernatural. He is credited with writing the hymn, "All Creatures of Our God and King."
John Hus (c. 1370-1415) - Czech proto-reformer who defended the teachings of John Wycliffe. Hus criticized the adoration of images, the prominence of superstition, and the sale of indulgences, but otherwise did not challenge church doctrine. Hus's followers also believed that preaching was superior to the sacraments. He was condemned at the Council of Constance and burned to death for his teachings.
Julian(a) of Norwich (1432-1516) - English mystic who passed into a trance and received visions upon which she meditated for twenty years. She based the meaning of life, the mystery of salvation, and her view of last things on the contents of the vision. Her work Sixteen Revelations of Divine Love is typical of medieval mysticism and is an inspiration for today's charismatic Catholic. Known alternately as Julian or Juliana.
Thomas à Kempis (1380-1471) - Dutch priest who held to standard medieval theology. His writings focus on humility and self-abasement before God. He also urged reverence for the ministers and sacraments of the church. His work The Imitation of Christ is available in many formats from different publishers.
Leo IX (1002-1054) - Pope during the Great Schism between the Eastern and Western churches. He sought to reform the church by promoting celibacy and education for the clergy. Leo excommunicated the bishop of Constantinople when he closed the Latin churches there. The main points of contention were papal primacy and the relationship between the Christ and the Holy Spirit.
Urban II (1042-1099) - Pope responsible for the launch of the first crusade against the Muslims. The goals for the original crusades were to reunite the Eastern and Western churches, to rescue churches in the Middle East from persecution, and to secure safe travel to the holy land.
John Wycliffe (c. 1330-1384) - Oxford professor and proto-reformer. Wycliffe held to the Bible as the supreme authority for faith and practice, and opposed the abuse of authority in the clergy. He also denied the doctrine of transubstantiation and defended the right of the common people to preach and read the Bible. Wycliffe was the first to translate most of the Bible into English, and for this the church exumed and burned his body after his death.
For a statement of my beliefs, see my Declaration of Faith.
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